colonizers and passive resistance by refusing to collaborate with the colonizers e .g. Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the Igbo; the CMS worked among the Yoruba. One 1885 treaty read: We, the undersigned King and Chiefs [] with the view to the bettering of the condition of our country and people, do this day cede to the National Africa Company (Limited), their heirs and assigns, forever, the whole of our territory [] We also give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to settle all native disputes arising from any cause whatever, and we pledge ourselves not to enter into any war with other tribes without the sanction of the said National Africa Company (Limited). The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by Shell and British Petroleum. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. At the urging of Governor Frederick Lugard, the two territories were amalgamated as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, while maintaining considerable regional autonomy among the three major regions (Northern protectorate, Southern protectorate and the Colony of Lagos). Accordingly, as the volume of trade increased, merchants requested that the Government of the United Kingdom appoint a consul to cover the region. The operations of this force are still not fully known due to a policy of strict secrecy mandated by the British Government. "Specifically, the Company sought to secure the cooperation of the traditional rulers in ensuring peaceful conditions for trade. Elections were held for a new and greatly enlarged House of Representatives in December 1959; 174 of the 312 seats were allocated to the Northern Region on the basis of its larger population. In all three regions, minority parties represented the special interests of ethnic groups, especially as they were affected by the majority. Nigerian delegates were selected to represent each region and to reflect various shades of opinion. In May of this year, Herbert J. Britain annexed Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River Protectorate in 1884. Rebellions Against Colonial Rule Before the Second World War. Both Africans and Europeans found illegal supplies such as secret stills, obtaining colonial liquor permits, and smuggling. However, development of the Nigerian oilfields slowed when Bergheim died in a car crash in September 1912. September 24, 2021 at 9:40pm by jones.7592. [61], The task of unification was achieved on the eve of World War I. Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 1921. [11], Britain's imperialistic posture became more aggressive towards the end of the century. European interpretations of Christian orthodoxy in some cases refused to allow the incorporation of local customs and practices, although the various mission denominations interpreted Christianity in different ways. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. Although his own ambitions were limited to the Northern Region, Bello backed the NPC's successful efforts to mobilize the north's large voting strength so as to win control of the national government. Resistance movements began to rise in . After the Napoleon war, the British tried to expand their colonial rule in Africa and began to establish trade tides with Nigeria in 1898. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. It, therefore, hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade and intelligence work in the local area. resistance and successfully imposed colonial rule should attest to the point that African military resistance was ineffectual. We bind ourselves not to have any intercourse with any strangers or foreigners except through the said national African Company (Limited), and we give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to exclude all other strangers and foreigners from their territory at their discretion. Elliot J. Berg, "The Development of a Labour Force in Sub-Saharan Africa"; France sold Louisiana to the United States, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Military history of Nigeria during World War II, National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons, discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits, "The Nigeria (Constitution) Order in Council, 1954", "Gombe-Abba: Historic emirs' town ruined by the British", A Very Bloody Transaction: Old Calabar and the Massacre of 1767, The Impact of the Slave Trade on African Economies, "Managing Epidemic: The British Approach to 19181919 Influenza in Lagos", "The Nigerian Victory Against The 1918 Influenza Pandemic and 1897 Smallpox Epidemic", "African Pentecostalism and the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: The Supernatural Amid the Fearful and Implications for the COVID-19 Pandemic", "The influenza pandemic of 191819 and the spread of cassava cultivation on the lower Niger: a study in historical linkages", Google Cultural Institute: Birth of the Nigerian Colony, 18511914, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colonial_Nigeria&oldid=1136412842. Frederick Lugard, shortly before becoming High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria.[68]. [11][12], In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at Whitehall. Nigeria became an independent state on the October 1, 1960 after being a British colony for over 40 years. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 1012. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. When direct Portuguese contacts in the region were withdrawn, however, the influence of the Catholic missionaries waned. Political leaders resorted to the use of political parties and the media to mobilize millions of Nigerians against the continuation of British rule. In the South, only English had official status. Crowther was succeeded as bishop by a British cleric. [79][80], Much of the colony's budget went to payments of its military, the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF). In addition to their economic grievances, they also called for the end of the reform of the native courts. The rapid expansion in exports, especially after 1830, occurred precisely at the time slave exports collapsed. Joining the Royal Niger Company in 1894, Lugard was sent to Borgu to counter inroads made by the French, and in 1897 he was made responsible for raising the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF) from local levies to serve under British officers. Anietie A. Inyang & Manasseh Edidem Bassey, "Imperial Treaties and the Origins of British Colonial Rule in Southern Nigeria, 18601890". The preparation of a new federal constitution for an independent Nigeria was carried out at conferences held at Lancaster House in London in 1957 and 1958, which were presided over by The Rt. Some indigenous peoples, such as those in the Americas, were forced to move to reservations or killed outright by invading European colonizers. After the Willink Commission examined and reported on this issue in 1958, independence was granted. He definitely laid the basis for British claims. Every Sultan and Emir and the principal officers of state will be appointed by the high Commissioner throughout all this country. resistance to British invasion and colonial rule so as to close that vacuum created by the 'majority syndrome' approach. The superior weapons, tactics and political unity of the British are commonly given as reasons for their decisive ultimate victory. Libyan Resistance. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. These policies met with ongoing resistance. The company received 865,000 compensation for the loss of its Charter. In 1794, the African Association in Great Britain commissioned Mungo Park, an intrepid Scottish physician and naturalist, to search for the headwaters of the Niger and follow the river downstream. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. They later discovered that the demand for . This became the Lagos Constabulary, and subsequently the Nigerian Police Force. The first missions were opened by the Church of England's Church Missionary Society (CMS). Another court was established in 1856 at Calabar, based on an agreement with local Efik traders which prohibited them from interfering with British merchants. [54] Olivier was a member of the Fabian Society and a friend of George Bernard Shaw. The growth of Islam in pre-colonial Igbomina / Adesina Yusuf Raji. The receding British presence enabled local officials and politicians to gain access to patronage over government jobs, funds for local development, market permits, trade licenses, government contracts, and even scholarships for higher education. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. ", Tamuno, T. N. (1970). [8] Azikiwe was installed as Governor-General of the federation and Balewa continued to serve as head of a democratically elected parliamentary, but now completely sovereign, government. In February 1961, a plebiscite was conducted to determine the disposition of the Southern Cameroons and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. The discussion of pragmatic resistance in Africa comes full circle with the former Portuguese colonies, South Africa, and Kenya. "The Hidden Hand of Overrule: Political Agents and the Establishment of British Colonial Rule in Northern Nigeria, 18861914". Crowther, a liberated Yoruba slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain, where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first group of CMS missionaries. Although colonial rule appeared secure in the first two decades of the 20th century, the British struggled to keep control of their Nigerian colony and continued to do so until Nigeria became independent in 1960. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from Nyasaland and established British presence in Uganda. Webster, Boahen and Idowu are of the opinion that the conquest of Africa was very simple and that it was carried out with ease. The only significant interruption in economic development arose from natural disasterthe Great Drought of 191314. Nigeria did not come into being until 1914, when the consort of a colonial Governor-General, Flora Shaw and her man, the fascist Lord Lugard willed and named Nigeria into being, with the dubious . The forces unleashed against the British were now diverse, including soldiers who had served in World War II, the media, restless youth, market women, educated people, and farmers, all of whom became committed to the anticolonial movement. In the meantime, public sector spending increased even more dramatically than export earnings. Between 1919 and 1954 the title reverted to governor. Hogendorn. In Africa, Nigerians lived under British rule from 1900 to 1960. [19] Ultimately, this became the Royal Niger Company. [11] In 1891, the African Banking Corporation founded the Bank of British West Africa in Lagos.[33]. [] These intermediaries assisted government diplomacy and helped to establish and maintain relations between the company and the traditional rulers. Ken Swindell, "The Commercial Development of the North: Company and Government Relations, 19001906". It was a relatively simple adjustment for many Igbo families to transport the oil to rivers and streams that led to the Niger Delta for sale to European merchants. Agents also collected intelligence for the colonial officials; they gathered information on public opinion and the military resources of the local polities; they also spied on rival colonial forces in foreign territories. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. The British took an interest in Nigeria because of its resources. British colonialism created Nigeria, joining diverse peoples and regions in an artificial political entity along the Niger River. Economic hardship caused by the war certainly underlay and even provoked resistance against the colonial authorities. The Governor was, in effect, the coordinator for virtually autonomous entities that had overlapping economic interests but little in common politically or socially. The company negotiated treaties with Sokoto, Gwandu and Nupe that were interpreted as guaranteeing exclusive access to trade in return for the payment of annual tribute. Hon. [17] Much of this oil was sold elsewhere in the British Empire. rebellion. The Eastern region was dominated by Azikiwe and the Western one by Chief Obafemi Awolowo, a Yoruba lawyer who in 1950 founded the Action Group. Christian missionaries were barred, and the limited government efforts in education were harmonized with Islamic institutions.[67]. [22] Many locals remained unconvinced of the Crown's authority to completely reverse the legal and moral attributes of a social institution through fiat. Although he reported on the eastward flow of the Niger, he was forced to turn back when his equipment was lost to Muslim Arab slave traders. Individuals could be fined or jailed for refusing to comply.[12]. In the long term, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of Nigerians depended on the various denominations adapting to local conditions. Though the Europeans possess many considerable settlements both upon the coast of Africa and in the East Indies, they have not yet established in either of those countries such numerous and thriving colonies as those in the islands and continent of America. The High Commissioner will be guided by all the usual laws of succession and the wishes of the people and chief but will set them aside if he desires for good cause to do so. I will be dealing almost exclusively with the areas of East and Central Africa - Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe - where a more or less coherent debate can be seen. The Governor-General represented the British monarch as head of state and was appointed by the Crown on the advice of the Nigerian prime minister in consultation with the regional premiers. Following the defeat of an unsuccessful foray by Consul General James R. Phillips, a larger retaliatory force captured Benin City and drove Ovonramwen, the Oba of Benin, into exile. On a subsequent expedition to the Sokoto Caliphate, Scottish explorer Hugh Clapperton learned about the mouth of the Niger River, and where it reached the sea, but after suffering malaria, depression and dysentery, he died before confirming it. Gandhi. "Separatist Agitations in Nigeria Since 1914." As a result, the trading post at the Niger River is created and the British economic rule is maintained over the colonies, exploiting Nigerians (Graham, 2009). By 1919 the National Council of British West Africa, an organization consisting of elites across West Africa, was demanding that half the members of the Legislative Council be Africans; they also wanted a university in West Africa and more senior positions for Africans in the colonial civil service. Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia, led his army to accomplish this unique feat in March 1896, defeating General Oreste Baratieri's Italian . Many changes accompanied British rule: Western education, the English language, and Christianity spread during the period; new forms of money, transportation, and communication were developed; and the Nigerian economy became based on the export of cash crops. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was Herbert Macauley, often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 19401947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'. The colony was created through the consolidation of the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria and the Northern Nigeria Protectorate. The war also made the British reappraise Nigeria's political future. The principal commodities of legitimate trade were palm oil and palm kernels, which were used in Europe to make soap and as lubricants for machinery before petroleum products were developed for that purpose. The trade subsequently continued under the Portuguese Empire. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. Consequently, in 1849, John Beecroft was accredited as consul for the bights of Benin and Biafra, a jurisdiction stretching from Dahomey to Cameroon. The colonial period proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which Nigeria gained its independence. It is not a unitary state with local government areas but with one Central Executive and one Legislature. At that time many scholars believed that Nigeria was able to develop into a stable and fast-growing state due to its huge potential. The central government, presided over by the governor-general and accountable to the secretary for the colonies in London, was more powerful but distant from the people. Although Nigeria came under the British charter in 1885 and was . Demanding immediate self-government, the Action Group was opposed by the Northern Peoples Congress (NPC), which was composed largely of northerners and headed by several leaders, including Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. The British Empire, once known as "the empire where the sun never sets," is the most powerful political entity in the history of the world. Native institutions were utilized and interference with local customs kept to a minimum, although the British did not always understand the local customs. Lugard's campaign systematically subdued local resistance, using armed force when diplomatic measures failed. Resistance to colonial rule took a number of forms, incrementally moving Nigeria toward independence. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed Samuel Ajayi Crowther as the first Anglican Bishop of the Niger. In contrast to Lugard, Clifford argued that colonial government had the responsibility to introduce as quickly as practical the benefits of Western experience. Most internal problems were concealed, and open opposition to the domination of the Muslim aristocracy was not tolerated. In time, they built depots onshore and eventually moved up the Niger River to establish stations in the interior. The transfer of responsibility for budgetary management from the central to the regional governments in 1954 accelerated the pace of public spending on services and on development projects. Dike, K. O. Bolivian indigenous activist Ivan Ignacio, one of many indigenous activists at the second People's Summit in Qubec . Independence was achieved on 1 October 1960. The approaches of the two men to colonial development were diametrically opposed. They never were able to elect sizeable legislative delegations, but they served as a means of public expression for minority concerns. British expansion accelerated in the last decades of the nineteenth century. Robin Hermann, "Empire Builders and Mushroom Gentlemen: The Meaning of Money in Colonial Nigeria". While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. Clifford emphasized economic development, encouraging enterprises by immigrant southerners in the north while restricting European participation to capital intensive activity. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991. Ethnic and kinship organisations that often took the form of a tribal union also emerged in the 1920s. Like in other countries under imperialist rule, colonialism in Nigeria resulted in numerous positive and negative impacts. By the mid-1940s, the major ethnic groups had formed such associations as the Igbo Federal Union and the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (Society of the Descendants of Oduduwa), a Yoruba cultural movement, in which Awolowo played a leading role. RESISTANCE. British business interests wanted to use this to create a monopoly over the industry, but Prime Minister H. H. Asquith's Liberal government and subsequent war coalition favored allowing international free trade. In 1894 the territory was redesignated the Niger Coast Protectorate and was expanded to include the region from Calabar to Lagos Colony and Protectorate, including the hinterland, and northward up the Niger River as far as Lokoja, the headquarters of the Royal Niger Company. They were instrumental in the development of government diplomacy with the traditional rulers; they spread government propaganda among the indigenous people; and they assisted colonial officials in parleying with native forces at war with government troops. Before 1898, the scramble for Africa by European countries led to the partition of Africa after the Berlin conference of 1884-85. On 9 May 1913, Lugard submitted a formal proposal to the Colonial Office in which Northern and Southern provinces would have separate administrations, under the control of a "strongly authoritarian" Governor-General. A . [61] John Anderson diplomatically suggested: If it is the necessity for formally submitting the drafts that hurts Sir F. Lugard, I should be quite prepared to omit that provision provided that the period of publication of the draft prior to enactment is extended from one month to two. The British answered this activity by attempting to create a more representational colonial system. ", Helen Chapin Metz, ed. The incidence of slavery in local societies increased. Retrieved October 11, 2014 from. Park reached the upper Niger the next year by travelling inland from the Gambia River. 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